Propagation

Two ways to make more plants: grow from seed, or clone what you already have. Seeds give genetic diversity and are cheap. Cloning preserves exactly what worked — the same variety, the same vigour, the same flavour. A self-sufficient system uses both.

Seed Propagation

Indoor Seed Starting — When to Sow

Count back from your last frost date. Most annuals need to be started indoors weeks before it's safe to transplant outside.

Crop	Weeks Before Last Frost	Germ Temp	Days to Germinate	Light to Germinate
Tomatoes	6–8 weeks	70–85°F (21–29°C)	5–10 days	Not needed — dark is fine
Peppers (sweet + hot)	8–10 weeks	80–90°F (27–32°C)	7–14 days	Not needed
Eggplant	8–10 weeks	75–85°F (24–29°C)	7–14 days	Not needed
Broccoli	6–8 weeks	65–75°F (18–24°C)	4–7 days	Not needed
Cabbage	6–8 weeks	65–75°F (18–24°C)	4–7 days	Not needed
Kale	4–6 weeks	60–70°F (15–21°C)	4–7 days	Not needed
Leeks	10–12 weeks	60–70°F (15–21°C)	7–14 days	Not needed
Celery	10–12 weeks	70–75°F (21–24°C)	14–21 days	Light required — surface sow
Basil	4–6 weeks	70–80°F (21–27°C)	5–10 days	Not needed
Squash / Pumpkin	2–4 weeks	70–85°F (21–29°C)	5–10 days	Not needed
Cucumbers	2–4 weeks	70–85°F (21–29°C)	3–7 days	Not needed
Corn (flour/dent)	Direct sow only	60–85°F (15–29°C)	4–7 days	Not needed
Dry Beans	Direct sow only	60–85°F (15–29°C)	5–8 days	Not needed
Peas (fresh/shell)	Direct sow — 4 wks before last frost	45–65°F (7–18°C)	6–10 days	Not needed
Carrots	Direct sow only	55–75°F (13–24°C)	10–17 days	Light helps — thin cover
Beets	Direct sow — 4–6 wks before last frost	50–85°F (10–29°C)	5–10 days	Not needed
Lettuce	4–6 weeks or direct sow	60–70°F (15–21°C)	2–8 days	Light required — surface sow
Spinach	Direct sow — 6 wks before last frost	45–65°F (7–18°C)	6–14 days	Not needed

Special Seed Treatments

Some seeds won't germinate without pretreatment — they have built-in dormancy mechanisms evolved to prevent germination at the wrong time of year.

Cold Stratification

Mimics winter. Seeds need a cold, moist period before they'll germinate. Mix seeds with damp vermiculite or paper towel in a sealed bag; refrigerate at 35–40°F (2–4°C) for the required time, then sow.

Plant	Duration	Notes
Apple	60–90 days	Seedlings won't be true to parent — graft for named varieties
Pear	60–90 days	Same as apple — use as rootstock or for diversity
Plum	90–120 days	Some also benefit from scarification first
Sour Cherry	90–120 days	Cold stratify then sow in early spring
Elderberry	60–90 days	Or sow outdoors in autumn and let winter do the work
Serviceberry / Juneberry	90–120 days	Sow fresh in autumn for best results
Hazelnut / Filbert	90–120 days	Sow in autumn directly — squirrels permitting
American Chestnut	30–90 days	Keep moist — seeds die if dried out
Pawpaw	70–100 days	Never let seeds dry; stratify immediately after cleaning
Cornelian Cherry	150–180 days	Double dormancy — warm then cold stratification
Aronia / Chokeberry	60–90 days	Easy — direct autumn sow works well
Sea Buckthorn	30–60 days	Relatively easy to germinate after stratification

Scarification

Hard seed coats prevent water absorption. Nick, sand, or soak seeds to break the coat before sowing.

Plant	Method	Notes
Honey Locust	Nick coat with a knife or sand with sandpaper; soak 24 hrs in warm water	Coat is extremely hard — nick is fastest
Siberian Pea Shrub	Soak in hot (not boiling) water 12–24 hrs	Simple hot soak usually sufficient
American Groundnut	Light sand + overnight soak	Follow with cold stratification 30–60 days
Dry Beans	Overnight soak in room-temperature water	Speeds germination significantly; don't over-soak
Peas (fresh/shell)	Overnight soak	Especially helpful in cold or dry soils
Nasturtium	Nick or soak 12 hrs	Germinates faster; not strictly required
Rugosa Rose	Sand lightly; cold stratify 60–90 days	Both scarification and stratification needed

Hardening Off

Indoor-started seedlings must be gradually introduced to outdoor conditions over 7–14 days before transplanting. Moving directly from indoors to full sun causes transplant shock.

Day Range	Exposure	Notes
Days 1–3	1–2 hrs outdoors in shade, no wind	Morning only; bring in if cold snaps expected
Days 4–6	3–4 hrs in dappled light	Watch for wilting; water before and after
Days 7–9	Half day in morning sun	Reduce watering slightly to toughen stems
Days 10–12	Full day outdoors including direct sun	Leave out overnight if temps stay above 45°F
Day 14+	Transplant to final position	Water in well; mulch immediately

Cold frames and cloches cut hardening time in half — plants transition through glass rather than jumping from controlled warmth straight to open air.

Vegetative Propagation — Cloning

Vegetative propagation produces plants genetically identical to the parent. Use it to multiply your best performers, preserve named heirloom varieties, and produce mature plants faster than seed allows.

Why clone instead of seed? Seeds from named varieties (Cox apple, Baldwin garlic, Blenheim apricot) don't breed true — the offspring are genetically different. Cloning is the only way to preserve exactly what you have.

Cuttings

A cutting is a section of stem, root, or leaf placed in a rooting medium until it develops its own roots. Three types: softwood (new growth, spring–early summer), semi-hardwood (late summer), and hardwood (dormant wood, autumn–winter — easiest for most woody plants).

Plant	Cutting Type	Best Time	Method	Notes
Comfrey	Root cutting	Any time	Dig and cut roots into 2–3" sections; bury 2" deep	Almost impossible to kill; any root fragment will grow
Black Currant	Hardwood	Late autumn – winter	Cut pencil-thick stems 8–10", bundle and store in sand or stick directly into ground	Very high strike rate; easiest woody cutting
Red / White Currant	Hardwood	Late autumn – winter	Same as black currant	Leave top bud above soil; remove lower buds
Gooseberry	Hardwood	Late autumn – winter	8–12" cutting; remove all but top 3–4 buds	Remove lower buds to prevent suckering
Elderberry	Hardwood or softwood	Autumn or spring	Hardwood: 6–8" sections pushed into ground. Softwood: 4–6" tip cuttings in perlite	Roots readily; hardwood is easier
Raspberry	Root cutting or sucker	Autumn – early spring	Dig suckers with roots; transplant directly	Produces suckers freely — just dig and move
Fig	Hardwood	Late winter	6–10" sections from last year's wood; root in pots indoors	Very easy; one branch can produce 6–8 new trees
Mulberry	Hardwood or softwood	Winter or summer	Hardwood: 8–10" cuttings in sand/perlite. Softwood: 4–6" tip cuttings under mist or bag	Hardwood less reliable than softwood; both work
Rosemary	Semi-hardwood	Late summer	4–6" tip cutting; strip lower leaves; root in gritty compost	Dip in rooting hormone; keep humid but not wet
Sage	Semi-hardwood	Late summer	Same as rosemary	New plants more vigorous than old woody growth
Thyme	Softwood or semi-hardwood	Spring – summer	2–3" tip cutting; root in gritty mix	Fast to root; replace parent plant every 3–4 years
Mint	Softwood	Any time in growing season	3–4" cutting; root in water or compost	Will root in a glass of water in 1–2 weeks

Division

Dig up a clumping plant and split the root mass into sections. Each section becomes a new plant. Best done in early spring (before growth) or early autumn (while soil is still warm).

Plant	Frequency	Method	Notes
Comfrey	Every 2–3 years or as needed	Dig crown; chop into sections each with a growing point; replant 18" apart	Every piece with root will regrow; invasive if not managed
Rhubarb	Every 4–5 years	Dig crown in early spring; cut into sections each with 1–2 buds; replant	Dividing reinvigorates old crowns that slow down
Chives	Every 2–3 years	Lift clump; pull or cut into smaller sections of 6–8 bulbs; replant	Also refreshes flavour and prevents overcrowding
Egyptian Walking Onions	Annually	Separate bulbils that form at stem tops; replant immediately	Each bulbil becomes a new plant the following year
Sorrel	Every 2–3 years	Lift and divide crown in spring; replant sections	Division keeps leaves productive; old undivided crowns get woody
Yarrow	Every 2–3 years	Lift and pull apart the spreading root mat; replant outer sections	Spreads vigorously — division also controls spread
Ramps / Wild Leek	Every 3–5 years	Carefully lift clumps in autumn; divide and replant; disturb as little as possible	Slow to establish — be patient; never harvest more than 1/3 of a colony
Globe Artichoke	Every 3–4 years	Cut offsets (side shoots with roots) from base in spring; pot up or replant	Parent plant declines after 4–5 years; offsets replace it
Horseradish	Annually at harvest	Replant side roots 6–8" long and pencil-thick after harvest	Near impossible to eradicate once established — site carefully

Layering

Bend a branch to the ground, wound it lightly, bury the wounded section, and wait for roots to form before severing from the parent. No special equipment needed — the parent plant keeps the cutting alive while it roots.

Plant	Method	Time to Root	Notes
Black Currant	Simple layering — peg low branch into soil, cover with 3" of soil	6–10 weeks	Easiest layering candidate; almost always works
Gooseberry	Simple layering	8–12 weeks	Same method as black currant; do in late spring
Hazelnut / Filbert	Simple layering	12–18 months	Wound the buried section and apply rooting hormone for best results
Raspberry	Tip layering — bend cane tip to ground, bury 3–4"	6–8 weeks	Tip naturally wants to root; minimal effort needed
Apple / Pear	Air layering — wound branch, wrap with moist sphagnum moss and plastic film	8–16 weeks	Best for propagating named varieties without grafting; detach when roots fill the moss ball
Mulberry	Air layering or simple layering of low branches	8–12 weeks	Simple layering on young flexible branches is easiest
Rugosa Rose	Simple layering	8–12 weeks	Score the bark lightly at the burial point to encourage rooting

Runners & Offsets

Plant	Method	Notes
Strawberries	Pin runners to ground or into pots of compost; sever once rooted (6–8 weeks)	Take runners from your best-producing plants only; remove runners from plants in their first year to build root strength
Egyptian Walking Onions	Plant the bulbils that form at stem tops in late summer	Named for the way the stem bends under the weight of bulbils and "walks" across the bed; each bulbil is a clone
Jerusalem Artichoke / Sunchoke	Leave small tubers in ground at harvest; they regrow automatically	Nearly impossible to remove once established — choose your site carefully
Raspberry	Dig and transplant suckers that emerge from roots	Produces suckers freely from spreading root system; use to expand patch or share
Globe Artichoke	Remove basal offsets (side shoots) with a piece of root attached in spring	Pot up in free-draining mix until established; transplant after 4–6 weeks

Grafting

Grafting joins a named variety (scion) onto a rootstock that controls tree size and vigour. Used for apples, pears, plums, cherries, and other tree fruit where seed propagation won't preserve the variety. A learnable skill — not complicated once practiced.

Graft Type	Best For	Season	Notes
Whip and tongue	Apple, pear — scion and rootstock similar diameter	Late winter, before bud break	Most reliable beginner graft; interlocking cut holds itself while healing
Cleft graft	Top-working old trees; large rootstock	Early spring	Split rootstock and insert 2 scions; remove weaker one once union forms
Chip budding	Stone fruit (plum, cherry, apricot)	Summer (July–August)	Single bud inserted into rootstock; high success rate on stone fruit
T-budding	Roses, stone fruit	Summer	Classic rose propagation method; fast and reliable

Rootstock controls tree size. M9 = very dwarf apple (6–8 ft, needs support). M26 = semi-dwarf (10–14 ft). MM111 = standard (18–25 ft, no support needed). For a food forest, semi-dwarf (M26 / M7) is usually the right balance of yield and manageability.